PSA tests for prostate cancer screening

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The PSA test for prostate cancer has pros and cons: It can prevent 3 out of 1,000 men from dying of prostate cancer. But it also leads to an unnecessary prostate cancer in up to 60 out of 1,000 men – who often have unnecessary cancer treatment as a result. The decision about whether or not to have the test is a personal decision.

The aim of doing PSA tests is to discover prostate cancer before it causes any symptoms. Early and treatment can improve the chances of recovery and lower the risk of the cancer spreading to other parts of the body (metastasis).

But this also has clear disadvantages: It finds many small tumors that aren't a medical concern. This is because, in most men, prostate cancer grows so slowly that it doesn't cause any problems for the rest of their lives. Men who have prostate cancer that is detected by are subjected to the burdens and side effects of the and treatment. The of a medical condition that would never have caused any symptoms or problems is called overdiagnosis.

PSA screening tests

The only test for prostate cancer that has been investigated in larger studies is the PSA test. In Germany, PSA tests are not covered by statutory health insurance. But many doctors offer the test as an individual health care service (in German: individuelle Gesundheitsleistungen, or IGeL for short), which you have to pay for yourself. The test costs between 15 and 20 euros. Because it involves a consultation and other related examinations, it often ends up costing around 50 euros in total.

The test is used to find the amount of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the blood. PSA is a protein that is made in the prostate gland and released into the fluid that carries sperm (called semen). PSA makes this fluid more watery so it is easier for sperm to swim in it.

To determine your PSA level, a blood sample is taken from a vein in your arm at the doctor’s practice and sent to a laboratory. It can take a few days to get the test results back. The amount of PSA in the blood is measured in nanograms per milliliter of blood (ng/ml).

What does the PSA level tell us?

Because the prostate gland has a very good blood supply, small amounts of PSA constantly pass into the bloodstream. PSA levels under 3 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) are considered to be normal, but there is a big gray area.

High PSA levels can be a sign of prostate cancer, but may also be caused by many other conditions. The reason: If the prostate gland changes or is irritated, a little more PSA is automatically released into the bloodstream. For instance, high PSA levels may result from:

It is a good idea to let the doctor know if any of the above have recently occurred so that the test results can be interpreted correctly or the test can be postponed.

But normal PSA levels do not definitely rule out cancer, either: In rare cases, men have normal PSA levels despite having prostate cancer.

But if the PSA level is very high, for example over 10 ng/ml, it is probably due to prostate cancer. PSA levels are rarely that high, though.

When is a biopsy done?

High PSA levels can be caused by many things, so abnormal test results don't necessarily mean you have cancer. To find out whether the high PSA levels are caused by cancer or something else, a tissue sample (biopsy) is usually taken from the prostate.

Opinions vary about which PSA levels mean that a biopsy should be recommended. The medical societies in Germany agree that a biopsy is a good idea if

  • the PSA levels are higher than 4 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) and a second test shows the same results, or
  • the PSA levels increase considerably over several measurements.

What problems can arise when a biopsy is taken?

The biopsy involves inserting a tube about the width of a finger into the (the end part of the bowel) through the anus (bottom). From there, fine, hollow needles are pushed into the prostate through the wall of the bowel to take several tissue samples. Ultrasound is used to check that the needles are moved to the right place. Ten to twelve samples are usually taken.

You are given before the procedure in order to prevent . A local anesthetic helps against the pain.

Men often have visible blood in their urine or sperm for several days after the biopsy. They may also have temporary problems when urinating or temporary erection problems.

About 2 out of 100 men who have this kind of biopsy have complications such as an . Some men have to go to hospital as a result.

How were the advantages and disadvantages of PSA screening tested?

A major European study looked into the advantages and disadvantages of PSA for men. The study involved a total of 162,000 men between the ages of 55 and 69. About half of them had two to three PSA tests on average. The tests were typically done about four years apart. If the PSA level was over 3 ng/ml, tissue samples were taken. The other half of the men were not offered tests. For 16 years now, the researchers have been observing how many men have developed prostate cancer in both groups and how many have died of it.

The PSA test in numbers: What results can be expected?

The data from this study can be used to get a rough idea of what can be expected from PSA .

So these results can only be used to get a general idea of what men in Germany can expect from a PSA test. One reason for this is because a different PSA cut-off level was used in this study than the one typically used in Germany. If 1,000 men between the ages of 55 and 69 regularly have PSA tests over a time period of 16 years, the following results can be expected:

  • About 620 men will have normal results.
  • About 380 men will have a high PSA level. Most of these men will then have tissue samples taken from their prostate to check the organ for cancer cells.
  • In about 250 of these men, the biopsy will not find any prostate cancer. The PSA test will have been a false alarm.
  • In about 130 men with abnormal PSA levels, cancerous cells will be found. Depending on how large and aggressive the cancer is, various treatments may be considered: common ones include "active surveillance," radiotherapy or surgery.
  • Up to 60 of these men would never have noticed that they have prostate cancer – and it would never have caused any problems.

How great are the benefits and risks of PSA screening?

  • Benefits: For every 1,000 men who have a PSA test, about 3 of them will be prevented from getting metastatic tumors and dying of prostate cancer.
  • Harms: But the test will also detect tumors and cell changes that would never have caused any problems. This kind of "overdiagnosis" occurs in about 60 out of 1,000 men who take part in this program, and they may receive unnecessary treatment as a result.

The following illustration shows the pros and cons of PSA at a glance.

Illustration: At a glance: What happens when 1,000 men take part in the screening program over a time period of 16 years?

As mentioned above, these numbers are estimates. That's partly because different PSA cut-off levels are recommended in Germany. Also, the men in the study were observed for 16 years on average afterwards. A longer observation period could lead to different results.

Making a decision

PSA tests can prevent some men from dying of prostate cancer. In other men, this test causes harm overall because it can lead to overdiagnosis – and unnecessary cancer treatment. So it's worth carefully considering the pros and cons of this test before deciding whether or not to have it. The advantages and disadvantages are summarized in the following table.

Reasons to have the PSA test Reasons not to have the PSA test
  • Reduces the risk of dying of prostate cancer
  • Reduces the risk of the cancer progressing and spreading (metastasis)
  • Often leads to overdiagnosis and unnecessary cancer treatments
  • Overdiagnosis can result in and erection problems
  • Screening can't prevent prostate cancer from developing

When making a decision, it's important to remember that some of the potential disadvantages of unnecessary cancer treatment occur straight after having the treatment. These include and erection problems. The possible advantage of – preventing death due to prostate cancer – usually only occurs after 10 years or more.

You should decide for yourself whether or not you would like to have a PSA test to screen for prostate cancer. You can take your time to make the decision. Nobody should feel pressured into having this test.

Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (AWMF), Deutsche Krebsgesellschaft (DKG), Deutschen Krebshilfe (DKH). Prostatakarzinom (S3-Leitlinie). AWMF-Registernr.: 043-022OL (Leitlinienprogramm Onkologie). 2021.

Borghesi M, Ahmed H, Nam R et al. Complications After Systematic, Random, and Image-guided Prostate Biopsy. Eur Urol 2017; 71(3): 353-365.

Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG, Germany). Prostate cancer screening with the PSA test: Final report; Commission S19-01. 2020.

Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ et al. Screening and prostate cancer mortality: results of the European Randomised Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) at 13 years of follow-up. Lancet 2014; 384(9959): 2027-2035.

IQWiG health information is written with the aim of helping people understand the advantages and disadvantages of the main treatment options and health care services.

Because IQWiG is a German institute, some of the information provided here is specific to the German health care system. The suitability of any of the described options in an individual case can be determined by talking to a doctor. informedhealth.org can provide support for talks with doctors and other medical professionals, but cannot replace them. We do not offer individual consultations.

Our information is based on the results of good-quality studies. It is written by a team of health care professionals, scientists and editors, and reviewed by external experts. You can find a detailed description of how our health information is produced and updated in our methods.

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Updated on September 16, 2022

Next planned update: 2025

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Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG, Germany)

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